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3.0   Perspectives from Development Studies Literature

The existing literature on Development Studies was reviewed in the following areas:

3.1 The Evolution of Development Studies.  Top of Page
Modern connotations of the term development evolved with the end of the colonial era and the emergence of many newly independent nations after the Second World War. During the colonial era, most "Development Studies" consisted of social anthropology, sociology, economics, political science, geography, history, and languages. These disciplines indicated the colonial rulers' interest in initiating the process of ‘civilization' and ‘progress'. However, the label "Development Studies" was not in use at this time.

In the post-colonial period up to the early 1970's, several new dimensions of Development Studies were explored. These new dimensions and new opportunities of exchange occurred in part as a consequence of the growing cooperation between developed and developing countries. The field of "Development Studies" also witnessed a substantial increase in the numbers of students interested in this area of study and the consequent expansion of educational and research institutes with a focus on development all over the developed world. The term "Development Studies" came into common use at this time.

Between the 1950's and the mid-1970's, Development Studies, at least from a European perspective, was characterized as serving three functions:

(1) the training of people for service in the former/existing colonies and other Third World countries;
(2) the training of students from the colonies and Third World countries; and
(3) the provision of a field of study for people who are simply interested in the field, without necessarily wishing to pursue a related career (Burns, 1975).

There have since been few deviations from these aims. At least in Europe, these aims have been identified as including: (1) the training of people to work overseas, either in government, voluntary, or inter-governmental agencies or private enterprise; (2) the training of ever-increasing numbers of students from developing countries; and (3) the provision of study of basically academic and/or personal interest.

Burns (1975) draws our attention to the fact that Development Studies as ‘a distinct field of study' was accepted in the North long before it was established at higher education institutions in most developing countries, displaying the ‘low priority' accorded to the field among the latter. However, this scenario underwent a vast change as institutions of higher learning in most developed and developing countries began to play a pivotal role in development by offering courses addressing the issues of development in such fields as economics, agriculture, geography, nutrition, and so forth.

By the mid-1970's, a proliferation of programs and institutes with a focus on international development was evident. For example, a study conducted in the Netherlands by the Institute of International Studies at the University of Leiden found 30 institutes which offered some form of "international studies" (Everts, 1974). Similar surveys at about the same time listed 21 institutes in the United States, 88 in Western Europe and the UK, and eight in socialist countries which offered Development Studies (Burns, 1975).

As the field matured, it was not unexpected that questions regarding the field's parameters and foci would begin to be raised. For example, issues about the lack of a historical perspective in the field were put forward, particularly with the increasing dominance of the economic perspective in the study of development and the widespread acceptance of neo-classical theories (Ingham, 1986). Similarly, questions about appropriate methodologies were considered, especially in the context of some of the rethinking of the philosophical grounds on which most social sciences have been built.

In the 1970's in Britain, the internationalization of Development Studies was advanced by two major research initiatives (Toye, 1986). The first initiative represented a return to the subject by "studying similarities between the European periphery and the Latin American countries in terms of the salience of foreign enterprises in manufacturing, tourism, underemployment, large-scale out-migration, and heavy reliance on imported consumer goods and cultural influences" (Toye, 1986). The second initiative was the interest in what was then referred to as "Peasant Studies." The insight offered by this initiative was that development which involves the social differentiation and the disappearance of the peasantry could be conceived of as a mode of production, with its own special economic, social and cultural logic. In this instance, the relationship between economic and social change became an issue to be further explored by development researchers, dismissing the conventional wisdom of economics in exploring the link between economic behavior, the motivations that bring about such behavior, and political decisions.

Another reason for the advancement of Development Studies was the realization that the implications of changes in the developing world, as well as the examination of development processes in these regions, were a useful framework for examining economic and social realities in the developed world. An illustration of this trend was the coming together of a group of economic historians in 1982 (called the Third World Economic Historians) which looked at the relevance of development issues in the Third World to present-day economic and social realities in Britain. The strong pragmatic content in Development Studies, it was argued, also provided a framework for "incorporating lessons learned from developing countries and applying these to problems of developed countries" (Drabek, 1987 p. 502).

The emergence of Development Studies as a more or less bounded field, yet an interdisciplinary one, was finally in response to the need for a more holistic approach to studying the problems of development and change which do not fit well within conventional academic boundaries (Drabek, 1987). In the post Second World War era, Development Studies had evolved into a field that addressed such processes as acculturation, community development and social change, poverty, and marginalization. As a result, the field of Development Studies required interdisciplinary cooperation and multidisciplinary approaches.

3.2  Influences on Development Studies.   Top of Page
The growth and evolution of Development Studies was further influenced by a number of factors, some of which are outlined below.

Studies of Rural Development.   The World Bank characterized rural development as:

....a strategy aimed at improving the economic and social conditions of a particular human group, that of deprived peasants. Development must benefit the poorest of those that must earn their living in the countryside and among whom one finds small landowners, small farmers, and the landless (Shute and Cummings, 1987).

This working definition identifies a target group as a focus for development efforts. However, it cannot be assumed that agricultural development can be equated with rural development. It is necessary to recognize all sectors, including the service sector, as a part of rural development initiatives. Shute and Cummings (1987) suggest that the concept includes those factors which combine to bring about an improvement in the ‘social, economic, and physical well-being of rural people.' When focused on Third World settings, rural Development Studies' contributions to Development Studies evolved from its understanding of the maldistribution of natural resources and services, food production shortfalls, government neglect, loss of population to urban areas, and higher levels of illiteracy, and powerlessness in rural settings (Shute and Cummings, 1987). The term rural development, of course, can also have a broader application to include the development of rural areas in developed countries.

International Business. The international business sector has had a curious connection with Development Studies, one which reflects some ambivalence. Henley (1986) suggests that the social dynamics of economic and technological dependence implied by direct foreign investment has been highlighted by Development Studies to varying degrees. Many researchers interested in development of human resources in international business do not see themselves as doing work in Development Studies. At the same time, much research in Development Studies appears hostile to multinational enterprise and tends to highlight the failures of corporate strategy. Henley (1986) argues that there is fruitful potential for interaction between researchers in the two camps. "Development Studies of labour utilization practices offer alternative scenarios of the labour process that in large part may be explained by the motivation behind investment, but also points to the very significant influence of government policies on labour market outcomes" (Henley, 1986).

Echoing this sentiment, Grieco and Scott (1986) have argued that Development Studies, with its early recognition of the importance of the multinationals and associated international division of labour is well placed to cope theoretically with the advent of the internationalization of production:

The location of production in the Third World is no longer to be explained solely in terms of cheap labour or proximity to markets, but rather in terms of the agility of labour and the ready acceptance of new technology in the context of work force resistance in the First World. Development Studies, because of its interdisciplinary character, has the capacity to relate technical changes to socio-economic processes (Grieco and Scott, 1986).

The Impact of Area Studies. With increasing specialization in the social sciences, it was natural for a group with similar interests in a region to coalesce and pursue regional or area studies. Thus, such specialty areas as "Asian Studies," "African Studies," or "Middle Eastern Studies" were born. This was helpful to Development Studies in two ways: first, these programs provided a potential pool of elective courses for Development Studies majors, and second, it allowed these majors to develop some regional specialty if they were interested in doing so. More specifically, Moulton (1985) argues that area studies in Canada are fertile ground for case studies, many of which are relevant to Development Studies. Area studies experts have also provided a pool of instruction for many Development Studies programs, for whom teaching resources have always been problematic. Not surprisingly, the evolution of area studies was dictated as much by academic interest as it was by Canada's attention to material relations with specific regions (Moulton, 1985).

Disciplinary Interest in Development. Historically, various disciplines, particularly those within the social sciences, invariably offered one or two courses that related to development. For example, in political science, it was not uncommon to offer a course on the "Politics of Developing Societies" or a number of courses on "Politics and Government of xyz country." The "Geography of Development" is mentioned as a common teaching subject in almost every Geography department in universities (Foggin, 1985). This discipline (as is likely true of other social science disciplines) claims some credit for contributions to such development topics as dependency and modernization theory and research, integrated rural development, population, migration and urbanization studies, ecological and economic management. (Foggin, 1985). It is in fact the disciplines in the social and applied sciences that have provided much of the base of teaching and research resources that contributed heavily to the growth of Development Studies.

Women and Development. During the past two decades, the study of women in development (WID), and, more recently, gender and development, has emerged as a significant sub-area within Development Studies, reflecting the realization within development practice that part of the failure for development projects was due to the neglect of women's interests and needs. The historically specific nature of gender differentiation and its relationship to socio-economic and political processes led to a recognition that analysis of gender relations entailed nothing less than a reconceptualization of development itself. Boserup's (1970) pioneering study established the significance of women's contributions to the informal sector of the economy and played a pivotal role in examining the gender-based division of labour. This examination resulted in the recognition of women as important development actors in their own right.

3.3  The Canadian Context    Top of Page
Canada, of course, does not have the colonial experience with developing countries that both Britain and the US have, so the experience of training a large number of students from former colonies which fuelled the growth of ‘international studies' in Europe and the US is less relevant. However, the academic interest in regions outside Canada and the interest among young people in an overseas experience provided the impetus for the early growth of Development Studies programs. By 1970, a study of Canadian Universities and International Development sponsored by CIDA and the Association of Canadian Universities and Colleges had identified 28 Canadian institutions which were offering some form of Development Studies (Walmsley, 1970).

A significant contribution to our view of Development Studies in Canada was provided in a study conducted in the early 1980's by Polanyi-Levitt and Trak (1984). The focus of this study was an examination of the state of Development Studies within the social sciences in Canadian universities. The specific objectives of the study were to survey the resources available at Canadian universities for the study of development and to present the views of Canadian academics involved in the teaching of development. These objectives were explored in the context of the economic crises of the early 1980's which had adverse impacts on universities and on the social sciences in particular. Only the disciplines of anthropology, geography, sociology, and political science were covered.

The study was based on a survey of instructors teaching development-oriented courses in some forty two universities in Canada. Seventy six instructors were interviewed. The major findings of the Polanyi-Levitt and Trak (1984) survey included the following:

1. The contemporary environment of social science departments at most Canadian universities did not appear to be favourable for the formation of scholars well equipped to approach development issues from a holistic perspective. Therefore, Development Studies tend to be marginalized within most universities.

2. The demand for people trained in the area of international development is growing outside universities.

3. Differential fees which discriminate against Third World students are detrimental to Development Studies in Canada and unacceptable on the grounds of universal academic principles.

4. No single paradigm now dominates Development Studies and there is a pluralism of competing approaches.

5. Development Studies constitutes a newly emerging area of interdisciplinary social science studies, with a distinct body of literature. However, the difficulties and problems of crossing disciplinary boundaries are many and varied.

6. The recent establishment of the Canadian Association for the Study of International Development is a significant move in the propagation of Development Studies.

7. In the establishment of Development Studies as a recognized area of specialization, university centres and institutes can play an important role.

8. University programs designed to equip students to deal with multidimensional problems of international development are a pressing necessity. Interdisciplinary programs could be developed at either the undergraduate or at the master's level. Interdisciplinary doctoral studies are generally considered to be difficult to organize and likely to be superficial.

9. The present trend among funding agencies is to emphasize team research which, in turn, discourages individual scholarly work. In an environment where the field needs to attract capable and committed scholars, there is a strong case to be made for a much greater degree of support and encouragement to individuals who wish to undertake extensive, thorough studies on particular issues.

Polanyi-Levitt and Trak (1984) found general agreement about the interdisciplinary nature of Development Studies and a significant level of support for this approach to the field. However, there were mixed feelings about the feasibility of introducing interdisciplinary programs, primarily because of resistance within established disciplines to crossing disciplinary boundaries. The researchers found that interdisciplinary programs were more likely to develop at younger and smaller universities than at older and larger ones. These interdisciplinary programs were more likely to be innovative with curricula and teaching approaches. Interestingly, the authors observed "a general lack of interest in the third world" characterizing the academic environment in the West, where they found Development Studies to be marginal if not non-existent. They contrasted this with the situation in the Maritimes where an empathy for the development experience and historical connections with the Caribbean promoted greater interest in development issues.

Respondents also emphasized that sensitization of students to problems of developing countries was the most important objective of their program. Instructors described their students as being successful in finding job opportunities among the expanding networks of non-government organizations.

Polanyi-Levitt and Trak (1984) also came up with a number of recommendations:

1. University administration should support interdisciplinary programs, and financial resources should be provided so that such programs acquire coherence by offering at least one specially designed core course in each year.

2. Waste of research effort at university centres generated by overemphasis on project, as opposed to institutional grants, should be avoided and more support given to individual scholars.

3. The possibility of establishing inter-university programs in Development Studies should be explored.

4. The potential which exists in small universities should be recognized and encouraged.

5. The policy of differential fees should be re-evaluated and re-assessed and, during the interim period, its undesirable effects should be minimized by encouraging universities to accept a given number of Third World students at regular tuition fees.

3.4  The Future of Development Studies   Top of Page
The future of Development Studies is of crucial importance since the issues of development are so critical to the improvement of the quality of life and the environment around the world and these issues will need our continuing attention. As one writer observed, "We need to study [these issues] in the most expeditious and relevant ways possible, building an informed and comprehensive literature that will prove useful to policy planners as well as to scholars" (Turner, 1986). Arguing that Development Studies needs to continue its focus on social theorizing, Turner (1986) points out nevertheless that the nature of these social theories needs to be seen as practical.

A number of arguments have been made for the continuing importance of Development Studies to intellectual development and to practical concerns. In the realm of the former, Development Studies have been said to provide "opportunities for immersion in other cultures," resulting in development of ‘a sympathetic imagination' and ‘acquisition of linguistic, sociological or anthropological knowledge' (Toye, 1986). In terms of applications to practical issues, Development Studies have been seen as fostering an understanding of the importance of defusing ethnic conflicts to facilitate beneficial change (Toye, 1986), an understanding of the political processes involved in changes from one type of government or political system to another, and the social changes involved underlying major economic changes.

Some continuing areas for future investigation. Development Studies are now at a stage where the comparisons and the national models can become truly international (Turner, 1986). In terms of areas for future investigation, we have adapted Turner's (1986) list of topics for future investigations and reorganized them under five areas: culture, the economy, the environment, demography, politics and civil society.

A. Culture — This includes issues such as multiculturalism, policy alternatives on culture and an intellectual understanding which may come from nationals on all continents. Cultural adaptation includes such areas as cultural assimilation and cross- cultural communications.

B. The Economy — This includes such issues as economic growth, levels of sustainability, consistency and patterns of growth. It also covers income distribution and equity in distribution of goods and services in terms of human welfare. This area requires further continuing attention to the issue of international debt, structural adjustment policies of lending institutions, spending patterns of debtor nations, and so forth. Finally, attention has begun to focus on the impacts of open economies or free trade policies on interactions between developing and developed countries.

C. The Environment — Recent interest in environmental issues over and beyond sustainable economic development are areas of increasing interest to Development Studies. These include: global warming, tropical deforestation, issues of biodiversity, urban planning, issues of pollution, and resource management.

D. Demography — There is need to focus continuous attention to mobility patterns, efforts to stabilize national populations, and to monitor various indicators such as health among various demographic groups.

E. Politics and Civil Society — Issues of political stability including changes in governments, types of governments and political systems continue to be central concerns of the field. As well, issues of population demands and levels of political participation will continue to need research attention. Attitudes and values that are appropriate for the maintenance of civil society will also be critical.

Curriculum. There remains the ongoing question of how the Development Studies curriculum should continue to be responsive to changes in both the international and the domestic environments, to the needs of the students in the programs and the larger university community, in addition to maintaining a balance between theory and practice. It is this challenge, within the broader historical and current international contexts that we have outlined, that still lies ahead.

3.5  Summary    Top of Page
The term Development Studies came into use in the post colonial era. As a distinct field of inquiry, Development Studies was accepted in the North long before it was established in the South.

The growth and evolution of Development Studies was further influenced by a number of factors such as studies of rural development, international business, the growth and impact of area studies, the recognition of the significant role played by women in development processes, and interest in Development Studies within established disciplines. Development Studies evolved as an interdisciplinary area of inquiry and addressed major global issues such as poverty, international debt, community development, and social change. In Canada, Development Studies evolved and expanded throughout the 1970's with increasing emphasis on internationalism. A study of Canadian universities and International Development, conducted in 1970, identified 28 Canadian institutions offering some form of Development Studies. A significant contribution to Development Studies in Canada was provided by a 1984 study.

The future of Development Studies is better understood in the context of a rapidly changing international environment. A number of arguments have been made for the continuing importance of Development Studies with regard to bridging theoretical development and the field's practical concerns. The future of Development Studies lies in maintaining a balance between theory and practice, being responsive to changes in both national and international environments and being responsive to the needs of students in Development Studies programs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY      Top of Page