Alternative visions for NWICO: An historical and comparative evaluation
In an earlier roundtable paper, I examined several important assumptions underlying the MacBride report and the MacBride movement (Basil, 1994/in press). That paper challenged the notion that the goals of Right to Communicate and the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) movement would inevitably be accomplished through a more equitable distribution of communication technologies. Instead, it appears that the media may have either positive or negative effects. More communication does not necessarily "fix" inequities such as retarded economic development, unequal distributions of wealth, or political oppression. Although providing access to communication technologies may result in economic changes, in many instances they may not. In fact, history shows that the distribution of communication technologies are often used by people as entertainment devices to entertain and pacify themselves.
This paper examines the history of broadcasting and other forms of communication across several countries for the specific conditions that affect the form and use that communication takes. It examines the tenability of alternative visions for the New World Information and Communication Order. Specifically, because the nature of the communication system appears to be so closely related to the political and economic structure under which the system is operated, we can identify four conditions which are associated with the most valuable forms of information via communication. Distribution of ownership between both commercial and non-commercial enterprises, point-to-point communication augmenting broadcasting, and the public's active interest in the content of the media appear to lead to the highest level of diversity in communication. Although this discussion is primarily focused on broadcasting, the infrastructure for other forms of communication such as telephone and internet communication also appear to be related to the structure of the surrounding civil society.
Broadcasting and communication history
After the development of radio and it's initial amateur period, there were no clear models for how broadcasting and other forms of mediated communication should develop in the world. In some instances political battles took place to establish control of the broadcast media. Examining a variety of countries, however, provides insights into the relationship between civil society and what appears in the media and what forms of communication are available to citizens.
United States
In the United States, a cozy corporate-government alliance allowed private broadcasting to be developed at the expense of education and nonprofit groups (McChesney, 1993). It was suggested that commercial interests would be most receptive to the public interest, but this turned out not to be the case. Instead, programming moved toward maximum profits by providing programs that would attract the largest possible audience for the lowest cost. Broadcasters fought over providing entertainment to a large audience and generally ignored meaningful political debate. When interests of the community conflicted with commercial interests, evidence of self-censorship was seen. When the consequences were observed, a broadcast reform movement developed (Engelman, 1996; McChesney, 1993). Although initially unsuccessful, the movement altered the development of television and FM radio through careful allotment of newer media. Although the U.S. commercial sector generally continues to focus on lowest common denominator programming, the educational and non-profit broadcasters provide political debate and more thoughtful programming.
The United States has one of the most developed telephone systems. It is also one of the leaders in support of the internet. So while most citizens may use the media primarily for entertainment, there is at least the potential for point-to-point communication between people both within and outside the country's borders. In practical application, however, most of the public has a limited interest in the affairs of other countries,
Canada
Canada, to try to deter U.S. domination of their airwaves, adopted a state-controlled broadcast system administered by the CBC (Ellis, 1979). In order to expedite its development, however, it administered temporary permits to private enterprise which eventually became rather permanent. As it now stands, Canadian broadcasting combines a public and private contingent, the same general division of ownership that exists in the U.S. While the commercial sector often retransmits U.S. programs, the CBC provides more thoughtful fare.
Canada also has a very developed telephone system. It is also a leaders in the area of the internet. So citizens have access to a point-to-point communication between people both within and outside the country's borders. Their historical alliance to the British Empire, and proximity to other countries results in some interest in information from abroad.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the move was toward government control of broadcasting. Moving away from the U.S. model, The British Broadcasting Corporation was established in 1922 under the auspices of the Post Office (Briggs, 1985). Funding required license fees. After a considerable struggle in the 1950s, commercial broadcasting (in the form of television) was allowed in the UK (Sendall, 1982). As in the U.S. and Canada, a similar division of ownership and programming resulted -- where both government controlled and independent broadcasting was established.
The United Kingdom has a very developed telephone system. It is a leader in the area of the internet. People in the U.K., therefore, have good access to a point-to-point communication between people both within and outside the country's borders. The historical importance of the British Empire results in an interest in, and presence of information from people in other countries.
France
France began regulating broadcasting in 1923, and although control rested with the Ministry of Posts, private stations received temporary licenses (Hamelink, 1995). Broadcasting, despite evidence and concerns over censorship under government operation, followed a model similar to that of the US and Canada with consistent results -- citizens have access to both domestically-produced and international (mostly U.S.) programming.
France has a very developed telephone system. It is rapidly pursuing a place on the internet, but their language puts the country and its citizens at somewhat of a disadvantage. So people in France have some access to people both within and outside the country's borders. History also suggests some interest in international affairs.
Soviet Union
After the Russian revolution, the Soviet Union imposed state control over communication media (Hamelink, 1995). Their former "Eastern Bloc" allies followed a similar model. The government not only exercised strict control over domestic programming, but also tried to limit citizens' exposure to outside material. Since the revolution, however, Russia and the former members of the Soviet Union have moved toward a more western European model of broadcasting.
The former Soviet Union and Russia have a somewhat less developed telephone system. Although its place on the internet is rapidly expanding, the limited telephone system, limited capital for investment, and their language and alphabet put them at a disadvantage. As a result, although there is an interest in international information, Russians have somewhat limited access to people outside the country's borders.
People's Republic of China
Today, The People's Republic of China follows a model of state-controlled broadcasting (Hamelink, 1995). In the PRC, the state regulates what appears in the media, and limits expression to what it considers supportive of the regime. Limited external material filters in. Which foreign movies are shown, for example, are regulated by the government.
The People's Republic of China has a very limited telephone system. China's place on the internet is very limited, although they did recently establish some government-controlled home pages. The limited telephone system, limited capital for investment, their language and alphabet put them at a disadvantage. Further, the current regime in China has actively tries to reduce the presence of foreign materials and ideas. As a result, most Chinese have very limited access to people and ideas from outside the country's borders.
Cuba
Cuba also follows a model of state-controlled broadcasting (Hamelink, 1995). The state regulates what appears in the media, and limits expression to what it considers supportive of the regime. Cuba actively blocks international broadcasting from its territory.
Cuba has a very limited telephone system. In addition, Cuba's place on the internet is generally limited by the telephone system and the lack of capital for investment. Spanish is a popular language, however, and does not put them at much of a disadvantage. The current regime in Cuba, however, also actively tries to reduce the presence of foreign materials and ideas. As a result, most Cubans have very limited access to people and ideas from outside the country's borders.
Lessons
The experiences of other countries suggest three models of press ownership: Private, public, and state-controlled. Each model has its own strengths and weaknesses. Each provides insights into how the civil society is closely related to the form that communication media take.
Private ownership results in a strong desire to control communication media and collect revenues through advertising. Private ownership does an effective job of providing rapid development, economies of scale, programming that appeals to the largest number of people, and a means of providing that in ways that appear to be without cost. The U.S. television industry provides a good example. Commercial forces, however, in attempting to maximize profits through economies of scale, often consolidate ownership to provide the least objectionable, lowest-common-denominator programming to the widest possible audience. In this way commercial ownership is generally incompatible with folk culture, thoughtful debate, and provides only a limited range of political challenge (Hamelink, 1995). In the U.S. television industry this also appears to result in a high level of rather banal programming with a considerable dose of violence.
Public non-commercial ownership, meanwhile, does an effective job of providing educational fare, venues for folk culture, and additional checks on the political process. The British Broadcasting Corporation provides an example. Non-commercial ownership, however, often is slow to develop, does a poor job of providing popular entertainment fare, and the costs are often quite visible to the public. In England and in Germany, objections to the highbrow fare of the non-commercial sector and public subsidization have lead to the inclusion of independent broadcasting alongside the public sector. In most countries, then, both commercial and non-commercial ownership has developed.
Government owned and operated media insure a stable, managed development and the most control over content. China and Cuba provide the best current examples. This control over content makes these states most susceptible to censorship, however, especially with regard to dissent over politics or public policy. State-controlled media does not appear to allow challenges to the status quo, especially from outside. Countries with state-controlled media have generally also tried to limit the influx of foreign programming and ideas through "jamming" international broadcasts and limited access to international point-to-point communication such as the internet. Some of the limits on the development of communication technology, however, may actually be attributable to limited capital on the part of these countries.
Other forms of communication appear to offer options to traditional broadcasting. In the broadcast realm, short-wave broadcasting provides a rather free-market exchange of ideas from a variety of countries and their respective broadcasting systems. Listeners in any part of the world with a short-wave radio can tune in to the Voice of America, CBC broadcasts, BBC World Service, Radio Moscow, or Radio Bejing so long as the broadcasts are not "jammed" or the ownership of receivers strictly controlled. Underground newspapers and radio also occur in a variety of countries (Lewis & Booth, 1990). In the point-to-point realm, telephone, amateur radio, and the internet also allow communication between individuals. Although the internet at first appeared to be moving toward a non-commercial point-to-point model, the future in the United States appears to be its use as a means of distributing traditional commercial entertainment fare. Whether this development toward entertainment use will follow a similar path in other countries has yet to be seen.
Conclusions
The discovery of the pitfalls of each approach to financing communication technologies suggest that there is no perfect model for communication media ownership. But thoughtful consideration of the strengths and weaknesses of each approach may help us evaluate an alternative model for communication. Models of alternative and community media may suggest that the content remains in the hands of citizens. This model appears viable only if citizens are able and willing to make the investment. Under these conditions communication appears to be most likely to result in a diversity of programming, an increased level of useful information, and a check on abusive political practices. The question remains, however, as to whether, regardless of the structure of the communication system or its ownership, people's desire for amusement will inevitably lead to entertainment over information.
The best hope for a New World Information and Communication Order is when conditions of diversity of ownership, when point-to-point communication exists alongside the widespread distribution of a variety of communication technologies, and when public concern and control of communication exists. We hope this is the New World Information and Communication Order.
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